GRAMMAR 5.1. Syntax 5.1.1. Communicative types of sentences: declarative, interrogative, negative, imperative…

From the viewpoint of the Role in the process of com­munication Sentence are derived into four types: de­clarative, negative, inter­rogative, and imperative sentences.

Television is a reflect The first modern type Christopher Sholes aι

I can Nobody was pres

Is thi There are a lot of m Give me a piea Would you be so kin

C точки зрения Роли в процессе коммуникации Предложение делятся на утвердительные, отрица­тельные, вопросительные и побудительные.

Ion of the modern world, ,writer was developed by τd two of his friends.

’t swim.

Ent at our meeting.

S a pen?

Ew books, aren’t there?

Г of chalk, please.

D to give me you book?

О. Adverbal modifier of time or place (Обстоятельство времени или места)

I.

Subject (Подле­жащее)

II. Predicate (Сказуе­мое)

III. Object (Дополнение)

IV. Adverbal modifier (Обстоятельство)

Indirect (Косвен­ное

Direct (Пря­мое)

Prepo­sitional (Пред­ложное)

Of man­ner (Образа дейст­вия)

Of place (Места)

Of time (Време­ни)

We

Sent

Them

The docu­ments

We

Sent

The docu­ments

To the director

We

Cannot take

Money

From him

I

Met

Him

By

Chance

At the labora­tory

A few

Days ago

A few days ago

I

Met

Him

By chance

At the labora­tory

Negative sentences

Отрицательные предложения

1. Negation can be a part of predicate.

1. Отрицание может быть частью сказуемого.

This book is not interesting.

2. Negation can be a part of other parts of the sentence. The subject is always in the affirmative form (pronouns no, No one, nothing, neither).

2. Отрицание может быть частью другого члена пред­ложения. Подлежащее всег­да в утвердительной форме (местоимения По, по One, nothing, neither).

She answered nothing. (She didn’t answer anything.)

3. Negation can be expressed by adverb of time or place.

3. Отрицание может переда­вать наречием времени или места.

He has never been to New York.

Subject (Подлежащее)

Auxiliary (modal) verb and particle Not (Вспомогательный глагол и частица Not)

Infinitive of the notional verb (Инфинитив смыслового глагола)

Other parts of the sentence (Другие члены предложения)

I You We They

Do not (don’t) Can (can’t)

Know

Them

He She

It

Does not (doesn’t) Can (can’t)

Types of the interrogative sentences

Типы вопросительных предложений

There are the following types of the interrogative sentences: general, special to the subject and to other parts of the sentence, alternative and disjunctive (tailed).

Существуют следующие ти­пы вопросительных пред­ложений: общие, специ­альные к подлежащему и к другим членам предложе­ния, альтернативные и раз­делительные.

General question (Общий вопрос)

Special questions (Специальный вопрос)

Alternative question (Альтернативный вопрос)

Disjunctive question (Разделительный вопрос)

К подлежа­щему

К другим членам предло­жения

Is he here?

Who is here?

Where is he?

Do you want tea or coffee?

Do you want tea or coffee?

Shall I read?

What is this?

What do you have?

Did you speak to them, or did he?

Pete doesn’t work hard, does he?

May I come in?

Who sees him?

What do you want?

Will you go there, or will your friend?

She didn’t go there, did she?

Does she sing at all?

Who saw him?

When will you see him?

Will he sing or dance?

You will do that, won’t you?

Did he see YOU?

Who can sing?

Why can’t you do that?

May I come in or may I not?

You have read it, haven’t you?

0 Место в начале предложения

1

Подлежащее

2 Сказуемое

3 Второстепенные члены

Глагол be

Is (Am∕Are∕ Was/Were)

He

Reading asked?

Your book?

Модальные глаголы

Must/May (Might)7zCan (Could)∕Shall (Should)

He

Read

Your book?

Вспомога­тельные глаголы will, have

Have (Has/

Had)

You

Written

This letter?

Will (Would)

You

Write

It?

Вспомога — тельный глагол do

Do

You

Read

These books?

Does

He

Read

This newspaper?

Did

She

Write

This letter?

Вопросительные слова Wħo∕WħatВместо подлежащего

Сказуемое

(в форме 3-го л. ед. числа) и другие второстепенные члены повествовательного предложения

Who

Studies English?

Knows the answer?

Whose children

Are playing there?

What

Is lying on the table?

What

Planes fly there?

Question word

(Вопросительное слово) Where (Где),When (Когда), How (Как),How much∕many (Сколько),How long (Как ДолгоIСколько Времени), Why (Почему),What (Что — К Дополнению)

General question (Общий вопрос)

Where

Did you get this book?

When

Will you go there?

How

Can we get it?

How many books

Have you read?

How much water

Did he drink?

In what way (How)

Do you want to celebrate this day?

How long (How much time)

Does it take you to get to the centre of the city?

Why

Do you want to see him?

What

Were you doing at 6 o’clock?

What language

Does he study?

General question

Conjunction (Союз) or

Alternative (Альтернатива)

Have you got a car

Or

(Have you got) a motorbike?

Does he know English

Or

(Does he know) German?

Affirmative sentence

Short qeneral question

+

—

You work much,

Don’t you?

We are students,

Aren’t we?

NB! I am a teacher,

Aren’t I?

—

+

You don’t work much,

Do you?

We are not students,

Are we?

NB! I am not a teacher,

Am I?

General question (Общий вопрос)

Short answer (Краткий ответ)

Is this a plane?

Yes, it is.

No, it is not (isn’t).

Have you written it?

Yes, I have.

No, I have not (haven’t).

Does he know the answer?

Yes, he does.

No, he does not (doesn’t).

Do you know the answer?

Yes, I do.

No, I do not (don’t).

Did he Go there?

Yes, he did.

No, he did not (didn’t).

Will you ask him?

Yes, I will.

No, I will not (won’t).

Alternative question (Альтернативный вопрос)

Answer (Ответ)

Is this a short story or a novel?

It is a short story.

Will you go there or will your friend?

My friend will.

Do you want tea or coffee?

Tea, please.

Disjunctive question

You agree

You disagree

(Разделительный вопрос)

(Вы согласны)

(Вы не согласны)

Your friend speaks English, doesn’t he?

Yes, he does.

No, he doesn’t.

You have finished your work, haven’t YOU?

Yes, I have.

No, I haven’t.

Your friend doesn’t speak English, does he?

No, he doesn’t.

Yes, he does.

You haven’t fin­ished your work, have you?

No, I haven’t.

Yes, I have.

Imperative sentence

Побудительные предложения

Imperative sentences have no subject.

They can express:

1) order, command:

Побудительные предложе­ния не имеют подлежащего. Они могут выражать: 1) приказ, команду:

Hurr ( Homopo

У up!

Питесь! )

2) instructions, tasks:

2)Инструкции, задания:

Read the text and answer the questions. (Прочитайте текст и ответьте на вопросы.)

3) invitations:

3) приглашения:

Help yourself. (Угощайтесь.)

4) warnings:

4) предупреждения:

Look out! (Поберегись! )

5) announcements:

5) вывески, объявления:

Keep off the grass.

(По траве не ходить.)

Let’s do

Let’s not do

Давай(те) сделаем

Давай(те) не делать

Lefs do everything together. (Давай(Те) Сделаем Все Вместе.) Let9s have some tea.

(Давай(Те) Попьем Чаю.) Let9s not wait for them! (Давай(те) не будем их ждать!) Let’s not make a noise! (Давай(те) не будем шуметь!)

Sentences with there is∕there are

Предложения c there is∕there are

In sentences describing some­thing the formal subject There Is introduced. Usually it is combined with the verb To be In corresponding number and tense form.

В Предложениях, описыва­ющих существование чего — либо, вводится формальное подлежащее There. Чаще всего сказуемым в таких предложениях бывает гла­гол To be В соответствующей форме числе и времени.

There is∕There was are usual­ly used with countable nouns in singular or uncountable nouns premodified by some, much, (a) little, no, enough.

There is∕There was исполь­зуются с исчисляемыми существительными в един­ственном числе или не­исчисляемыми существи­тельными, перед которыми могут использоваться оп­ределители some, much, (а) little, no, enough.

There is a cup on the table. There is no space in the room. There is much work to do.

There is little time left.

There are∕There were are usually used with countable nouns in plural, which can also be premodified by some, many, no, enough, (a) few or a cardinal numeral.

There are∕There were ис­пользуются с исчисляемы­ми существительными в множественном числе, пе­ред которыми могут ис­пользоваться определители some, many, no, enough, (a) few или количественное числительное.

There are three apι There are some mist There are nc There are feu

NB! A lot of is usually com­bined with the verb To be in singular.

There is a lot О There is a lot of pet

Dies on the table.

Lakes in your test, question.

Cakes left.

NB! A lot ofОбычно соче­тается с глаголом To beВ единственном числе.

F work to do.

Dple in the street.

Present Simple

Past Simple

Future Simple

There is… (There’s…) There are… (There’re…)

There was…

There were…

There will be…

, — К Л + adverbial

There be + somebody « 1

T, . modifier of place

Something

There is an art Museum in our city.

(В нашем городе есть художественный музей.) There are two cinemas in our block.

(В нашем квартале два кинотеатра.) There was somebody in the room. (В Комнате Кто—То Был.) There were three sisters in the family.

(В семье было три сестры.) There will be a new school here. (Здесь будет новая школа.)

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

Present

There is a kitten in the box.

There is not a kitten in the box.

Is there a kitten in the box?

There is no kit­ten in the box.

There are kittens in the box.

There are not kit­tens in the box.

Are there kittens in the box?

There are no kit­tens in the box.

Past

There was a kitten in the box.

There was not a kitten in the box.

Was there a kitten in the box?

There was no kit­ten in the box.

There were kittens in the box.

There were not kittens in the box.

Were there kittens in the box?

There were no kittens in the box.

Future

There will be a new school.

There will not be a new school.

Will there be a new school?

Impersonal sentences

Безличные предложения

The personal pronoun it functions as a formal subject in the impersonal sentence. It is combined with the verb to be in appropriate tense form in singular and takes the first place in the sentence. To be can be followed by the infinitive, the gerund, the adjective, the adverb or the noun (with the attribute).

It is cold ι It is getti It isn’t easy to studι

Личное местоимение it ис­пользуется как формальное подлежащее в безличных предложениях. Оно соче­тается с глаголом to be в нужной временной форме в единственном числе и сто­ит на первом месте в пред­ложении. После глагола to be обычно употребляется инфинитив, герундий, при­лагательное, наречие или существительное (с опреде­лением).

П winter, ng dark. ! foreign languages.

Sometimes construction it is /it was∕it will be can also be used as a demonstrative.

It is my It was the happiet

Иногда конструкция it is∕it was∕it will be может использоваться в качестве указательной.

Brother.

Day in my life.

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

Present

It is getting dark. It’s getting dark.

It is not getting dark. It isn’t getting dark.

Is it getting dark?

Past

It was getting dark.

It was not getting dark.

It wasn’t getting dark.

Was it getting dark?

Future

It will be getting dark.

It will not be getting dark.

It won’t be getting dark.

Will it be getting dark?

There + to be

То be

1. Указывает на наличие или отсутствие предмета в определенном месте (кто/ что (не) находится)

There is a bottle of milk in the fridge.

(В холодильнике есть бу­тылка молока.)

2. Указывает, где именно находится определенный, известный говорящему пред­мет.

Where is the bottle of milk? — It’s in the fridge.

(Где бутылка молока?

— Она в холодильнике.)

There are no children (=not any children) in the room. (В комнате нет (ника­ких ) Детей.)

2.Нельзя заменить сущес­твительное личным место­имением.

There is some bread on the table.

The children aren’t in the room. They are in the garden. (Дети не в комнате.

Они в саду.) 2.Существительное можно заменить личным местоиме­нием.

The bread is on the table. It’s on the table.

Compound And Complex Sen­tences.

Сложносочиненные И Слож­ноподчиненные Предложе­ния

The parts of the compound sentences and the parts of the sentences are joined by the conjunctions And, but, or, etc.

You and he z Yesterday I was tired, and my There are a lot of boot detective stories, I like to swim but only A complex sentence has an in­dependent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A complex sentence always has a Subordinator such as conjunc­tions Because, since, after, al­though, or conjunctive prono-

Части сложносочиненно­го предложения и члены предложения соединяются союзами And (и), but (но, a), or (или7 и т. д.

Nay go out.

Mother let me stay at home, ks there*, fairy tales, 2nd love stories.

In the swimming pool.

Сложноподчиненное пред­ложение состоит из главно­го предложения, к которо­му присоединены одно или больше зависимых прида­точных предложений. В сложносочиненном предло-

Un when or a relative pronoun such as That, who, Or Which.

Женин всегда есть соеди­нительный элемент, выра­женный местоимением или союзом.

When he handed in his homework, he forgot to giυe the teacher the last page.

The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error.

The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow.

After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies.

Juan and Maria went to the movies after they finished studying.

When a complex sentence be­gins with a subordinator, a comma is required at the end of the dependent clause. When the independent clause begins the sentence with subordina — tors in the middle as in sen­tence, no comma is required.

Если сложноподчиненное предложение начинается с главного, запятая между его составными частями не ставится. Если сложно­подчиненное предложение начинается с зависимого, то главное и придаточное предложения разделяются запятой.

Main types of dependent clauses

Основные типы придаточных предложений

The main types of dependent clauses are the following: sub — ject∕nominal, predicative, ob­ject, attributive, adverbial.

Основные типы придаточ­ных предложений: номи­нативные, предикативные, дополнительные, атрибу­тивные и обстоятельствен­ные.

Subject clauses Usually func­tion as a subject. They are in­troduced with the help of such Subordinators as Who, what, which, that, whether, if.

That I have never seen hiι Who spoke at the meeting ha.

What I like be.

Predicative clauses Are usu­ally used in the syntactical function of a nominal part of the compound predicate. They are introduced with the help of the same Subordinators as the previous class.

That’s why sl This is what I / The truth is that Γv

Object clauses Are introduced by the Subordinators That, if, whether. Conjunction that is often omitted, especially in everyday speech.

David thinks that we s/ David thinks we shot

Attributive clauses Are intro­duced with the help of Who, which, that, when, where, how.

Номинативные придаточ­ные предложения Обыч­но выступают в роли под­лежащего. Они вводятся при помощи таких соеди­нительных элементов как Who, what, which, that, whether, if.

N before is quite certain.

5 Escaped from my memory, st is football.

Предикативные придаточ­ные Обычно выступают в роли именной части со­ставного сказуемого. Они вводятся при помощи тех же соединительных эле­ментов, что и предыдущий вид.

ιe is crying.

Rave told you.

E never been there.

Дополнительные прида­точные предложения Вво­дятся при помощи That, if, whether.Союз часто опус­кается, особенно в разго­ворной речи.

∖ould have a meeting, dd have a meeting.

Атрибутивные придаточ­ные предложения Вводят­ся при помощи Who, which, that, when, where, how.

Attributive clauses can be Re­strictive and non-restrictive.

Restrictive (limiting) clauses Indicate the particular object, which is usually premodified by the definite articles.

Атрибутивные придаточ­ные предложения подраз­деляются на Обособлен­ные и необособленные. Обособленное придаточ­ное Указывает на опре­деленный предмет, перед которым ставится опреде­ленный артикль.

Non-restrictive (descriptive) Clauses are usually separated by commas and can be omitted without destroying the mean­ing of the sentence.

Необособленные прида — точные Обычно отделяют­ся запятыми и могут быть опущены, не разрушая значения предложения.

Of time (времени)

His mother died when he

Of cause (причины)

Because it was raining ha reading b

Of place (места)

I looked where ι

Of result (следствия)

She went to the circus early s(

When, till (until), as soon as, as long as, before, while: was eight years old.

Because, for, as, since:

Rd, I spent all the day ooks.

Where, anywhere, everywhere, wherever:

She pointed.

So… (that), such… that, with the result that:

3 that she got a good seat.

Of purpose (Цели)

The teacher explained the pupils could uni

Of condition (Условия)

If she doesn’t come in time, I Sj

Of manner (Образа Действия)

You ought to speak

Of comparison (Сравнения)

I shall do a

Of concession (Уступительное)

However busy he is, he alwc

So that, tn order that, lest, for fear

Rule twice in order the Ierstand it.

If

Hall go to the theatre alone.

As if, as though

English as I do.

As; as∕so… as; not as/so…

As; more∕less… than; the… the

S I like.

Although, though, even though, even if, much as, while, whereas

ιys visits me on Friday.

Sequence of Tenses

Согласование времен

A present (or future) tense in the principal clause may be followed by any tense in the subordinate object clause.

I know that he pit A past tense in the principal clause is followed by a past tense in the subordinate object clause.

I knew that he pla

За настоящим (будущим) временем в главном пред­ложении следует любое время в придаточном.

ιys tennis well.

За прошлым временем в главном предложении сле­дует прошлое время в при­даточном.

Yed tennis well.

When the subordinate clause describes the so-called general truth, or something which the speaker thinks to be one, the sequence of tenses is not ob­served.

Roy never realized tha

Когда придаточное пред­ложение описывает так называемые непрелож­ные истины или что-то, что говорящий считает в единственном экземпляре, согласование времен не употребляется.

T our Sun is so big.

Глагол в прямой речи

Глагол в придаточном дополнительном предложении

Present Simple →

Past Simple

Present Continuous (Progressive)

Past Continuous (Progressive)

Past Simple

Present Perfect

Past Perfect

Past Continuous Progressive

Past Continuous Progressive или Past Perfect Continuous Progres­sive

Future →

Future-in-the-Past (should∕would + infinitive (without to)

Can →

Could

May →

Might

Must →

Must

This (these) —

÷ that (those)

Now

÷ then

Here

÷ there

Yesterday —

÷ the day before

Today

÷ that day

Ago

■> before

Now

-> at that time

Tomorrow —

÷ the next day

Direct and Indirect speech

Прямая и косвенная речь

When we want to report some­thing said by another person we use reporting verbs: “to say”, “to tell”, “to talk”, “to speak”.

To say” and “to tell” are used with direct object:

He said nothing. St 1. The verb “to tell” is used without an indirect object:

A) in the following expres­sions:

To tell the truth; to U B) if it means “различать”, “угадать”:

Hotu can I tell w 2. The verb “to tell” may take a prepositional object when it means “рассказать”:

Will you tell 3. The verb “to say” is used with a prepositional object when you want to emphasize the person addressed:

She said no 4. “To speak” and “to talk” take prepositional objects:

To speak or talk to smb. t with subi

Когда мы хотим пересказать что-либо сказанное другим человеком, мы используем соответствующие глаголы: “to say”, “to tell”, “to talk”, “to speak”.

To say” и “to tell” использу­ются с прямым дополнием: He told me nothing.

1. Глагол “to tell” использу­ется без непрямого дополне­ния:

А) в следующих выражени­ях:

?ll lie; to tell a story;

Б) если оно означает “разли­чать”, “угадать”: Hat may happen?

2. Глагол “to tell” может принимать предложное до­полнение, когда он означает “рассказать”:

Те about it?

3. Глагол “to say” исполь­зуется с предложным до­полнением, когда вы хотите выделить персону, к кото­рой обращаются:

Thing to Те.

4. “То speak” и “to talk” принимают предложные до­полнения:

Smb. t about smtħ, on a certain ject.

5. The verb “to speak” takes a direct object in the follow­ing case:

To speak English; to sp<6. When we change Direct into Indirect Speech we must:

A) omit the quotation marks

B) change the reporting verb into the one best suited to ex­press the sense of the Direct statement, question, com­mand or exclamation;

C) introduce the Indirect Speech by some conjunction;

D) change the pronouns;

E) observe the sequence of tenses;

F) change the words express­ing distance.

5. Глагол “to speak” прини­мает прямое дополнение в следующем случае:

?ak a foreign language.

6. Когда мы меняем пря­мую речь на непрямую, мы должны:

А) выпускать кавычки

Б) менять глагол в непрямой речи на наиболее подходя­щий по смыслу к прямому утверждению, вопросу, при­казу или восклицанию;

В) представлять непрямую речь соответствующим со­юзом;

Г) менять местоимения;

Д) использовать согласова­ние времен;

Е) менять слова, виражаю — щие расстояние.

Neither refers to zero things of a group of two.

Соотноситься ни с одним из существительных.

I have two brothers, both of them are engineers.

I had two maps of the city, but I cannot find either of them. There are two textbooks for the course, neither of them is expensive.

The determiners Both/neither/ either can also be combined with preposition Of. When you use these words with Of, they always need a demonstrative or possessive pronoun or the definite article.

Both/neither/eitherМогут также сочетаться с пред­логом Of.Если эти слова используются с предлогом, то перед существительным должен стоять определен­ный артикль или указа­тельное, или притяжатель­ное местоимение.

Both of these restaurants are very good. Neither of the restaurants we went to was expensive. We can go to either of those restaurants.

The determiners can be used alone or in constructions Both… and, neither… nor, and either… or.

Определители могут ис­пользоваться самостоятель­но, либо в выражениях Both… and, neither… Пог, и either… or.

Both Tom and Ann were late. They were both tired and hungry.

Neither Tom nor Ann came to the party.

He said he would contact me, but he neither wrote nor called.

Γm not sure where he is from.

He9s either Spanish or Italian.

Either you apologize, or Γll never speak to you again.

I will have either coffee or tea.

Я выпью или кофе или чай.

I will have neither coffee nor tea.

Я не буду ни кофе, ни чай.

I will have both an ice-cream and a cake.

Я буду и мороженное, и пирожное.

Either hotel will offer you its best room.

Один из отелей предложит вам свой лучший номер.

Neither hotel will offer you its best room.

Ни один из отелей не пред­ложит вам свой лучший номер.

You may borrow either of the books.

Можешь одолжить одну из этих книг.

You may not borrow either of the books.

You may borrow neither of the books.

Ты не можешь одолжить ни одну из этих книг.

I might give the message to either boy.

Я мог передать послание одним из мальчиков.

I might not give the message to either boy.

I might give the message to neither boy.

Я не мог передать послание ни одним из мальчиков.